office interior design lebanon

good evening everybody. delighted to see so many ofyou here and thank you for coming. so just to introduce you to stephanieand the reason why she's here first of all is because she will be chairing thejury of the riai universal design award tomorrow, the final stage of that jury. and this award has been supportedby the centre of excellence in universal design for the last two years and we saythank you to ger craddock and to ruth and those from the centre, neil ofcourse who was very much involved from the centre of excellence.

this building that we're in now, ucdstudents centre, which of course was designed by fitzgerald kavanagh,won the award last year and what was interesting about that is that it also wonthe public choice award and we think that's quite apt that the universal designaward also should be given to a building that quite independently wonthe award selected by the public. and i know i don't see tina lowe heretonight but tina is the access officer in ucd who herself is a guide doguser and she really swung me with her citation for this buildingand how much it meant to her. for the first time she was able do thingsthat she was never able to do before.

she was able to use the swimming pool,she was able to enjoy the facilities in the building with great ease and ithink that's a credit to the architects. she just said i wish every building onthe campus could be as good as this. so that's what we like to hear and that'swhat the award is about is supporting and encouraging architects towork more with people and engaging in designing buildings for people that canthen interact with their environment, so stephanie akkaouihughes is from the lebanon. she's an architect educated inbeirut and i had the pleasure to visit the lebanon last december and of course islipped away from a couple of meetings

and where did i go, to theamerican university which is where she studied and i was delighted to gointo the school of architecture there and what did i see? the first thing that i saw as i walkedin the door of the school of architecture, an exhibition on contemporaryarchitecture and there, first image was a photograph of the bocconiinstitute designed by irish architects, grafton architects, and next to that wasa building from qatar, now, i don't think it was a building that you designedstephanie, but when stephanie left beirut she went to the netherlandswhere she worked with oma,

with rem koolhaas i'm sure, and whilethere she worked on several buildings, she was a team lead for threebuildings in qatar including the qatar foundation headquarters, the nationallibrary and also a strategic study centre. so, when on leaving oma she setup her own practice, akka architects and we're going to hear more about thephilosophy of that practice and of her work this evening which is about humaninteraction and interacting with one's environment, so stephanie i am going tolet you -- oh, before i just let you take over if i can say at the end of her talkwe're going to have a short question and answer session and then ceudhave very kindly invited you all for

refreshments outside. (applause) >> all our actions are interactions,an architect was asked to design a university campus on a site thatseen from above would have looked something like this. so she designs different departmentsand builds them on site and contrary to the expectation of the staff andstudents she doesn't design any routesor pathways. instead she plantsthe whole site with grass. obviously this is well grown grass.

after the first semester paths haveappeared in the grass, she then came back and paved themjust as they had emerged. not only were the paths in unusuallocations, none of them were straight. there are three aspects, three conceptsi want to highlight from the story heretoday. the first one has to do with interaction,now, i'd like you to shout out to me on the count of three what is the firstword that comes to mind when i say interaction, ready, one, two, three... (audience shout words) connections, work,people, one more, spaces.

thank you. interaction could mean a lot of things. if we take it literally it's really inter andaction which is the action happening in between entities, a relationship yousee is a status between two entities. it's a static status. an interaction is that relationshipput into action, made alive, energised. an interaction forme is a living relationship. any interaction you can think of, anyat all, always, always happens within a context and context is the secondnotion i'd like to highlight from the story.

now, by context i mean theenvironment, the space we're in and that includes the paper you have inyour hand, the chair you're sitting on, the room, the building,the city and the people. context is crucial because contextgives meaning to the interactions happening in it, neil, wouldyou please stand up for a second. would you please putyour right hand up like that. great, ladies and gentlemen,what is neil doing, any ideas? what if i said he was ona street corner in new york city. >> hailing a taxi.

>> what if he was 12 years old in aclassroom, what if i said he was at a neo-nazi rally? without context we cannot understandthe meaning of an interaction. context is what gives meaning to ourinteractions and that's why it's crucial, whatever interaction waslooking at, to look at it in its context. the third concept i want to highlightfrom the story has to do with livingspaces. now we've looked atinteractions as living relationships and now they happen in a context. it's precisely those interactionsthat render the context a living space.

and spaces are made to be lived in. an empty space is a dead spacewhich is why for me architecture is only successful when it's actually liveable,when it's lived in, when it's alive. and when we talk about spacesbeing lived in we're talking about spaces being lived in by people. not customers or clients or bossesor employees or abled or disabled but really just people. and people come in different sizes anddifferent shapes with different needs atdifferent times. the success of a space for meat least is really in its ability to adapt.

how well does a space adapt is to thesedifference sizes and different shapes. how well does it adapt to different needsand how well does it adapt at different times and this is why i believe ourfocus, especially as architects, planners, anybody involved in the builtenvironment, is to focus on creating an environment that can be used by allpeople, regardless of age, size andability. now this is what universal design is andit's also of course the centre's definitionof it. mr. mace who is the architect whocoined the term of universal design actually defined it inquite an interesting way. he talked about universal designas designing an environment to be

aesthetic, and usable to the greatestextent possible by everyone regardless of their age, ability or status in life. whichever way we look at it universaldesign has something always there, it's this notion of being usable by allthe people no matter how we define it. even bringing in the idea ofstatus in life is quite important. now although the term universal designhas been coined at a certain moment in time the concept ofit of course is not new. the concept of it is old and itshould be implicit in any good design. this is like you know the termsustainability which has become a trend

over the last few yearsand actually not anymore. there is something newthat is going to come up now. sustainability and universal designshould be implicit in any good design to the point where ideally we shouldn'thave to make an issue of them or have to talk about them. now, who here is an architect? wow. planners? one, policy makers?

who here is a user? my point is this topic is relevant toall of us, because no matter what our profession is we're all using spacesand we all have a responsibility towards universal design whether architects,planners, policy makers, engineers, end users which basically means everybody. what i would like to talk about today ismy own personal ideas and conceptions around universal design and i'msure a lot of the concepts i'm going to mention here are not new to you,you may be familiar with a lot of them. what i'm hoping to do is sharemy personal perspective on them and

hopefully enrich a dialogue, trigger aconversation around the bigger more comprehensive sense of universaldesign, now if i put it really simply universal design to meis about the use of spaces. and how people use a space comesdown to the interactions that happens inthe space. that's what it comes down to. the interactions of people in the spaces. the idea of universaldesign is really comprehensive. i was talking to neil before and actuallyanything can be put under universal design because it's about people and it'sabout all people and they're everywhere

in spaces and environments. now, over the years in a few contexts,the understanding of universal design has been limited to wheelchairs andaccessibility and barrier free design notions, and those are all limiting rules. they are not liberating concepts. if you think about all these it's aboutrules and regulations and they're very often added as a second thought afterthe project is done, as opposed to being an integral fruitfulpart of the design process. the one that createsthe building in the first place.

universal and unityhave the same roots. and that root means one. now what i'd like to highlight hereis unity does not mean sameness or homogeneity or one size fits all,unity is really unity in diversity. if you look at nature, it's one of the mostcomplex and complete examples of aunified system. a unified ecology. and yet it is incredibly diverse. let me take a momentto expand on diversity. in one word, what do you thinkof when think of universal design,

what comes to your mind? people. nothing (laughs). aren't you having a phd it in!? any other ideas? respect. that's great. what comes to your mindwhen we talk about universal design? elegance, nice.

haven't heard that in a long time. i want to mention just a few of theprinciples of universal design here and this is just a few. inclusive, aesthetic, adaptive, equitable,flexible, intuitive, simple, tolerant, easy, perceptible, comprehensible. we could go on and on with thislist but the pattern that emerges here, the one thing i want to highlight isthat these are all liberating concepts. designing a space that's adaptive,that ladies and gentlemen, is liberating. designing a space that's tolerant, that'sfantastically liberating and this is what i

want to stress here today, thiscomprehensive and large understanding of universal design, and how it actuallycan be the starting point of any design process as opposed toa second layer added on it. and this building we're in heretoday is a great example of that. i want to mention a quote by michaelwolfe who said, "when you include the extremes of everybody, that is to saydifferently abled people of all sorts then you produce thingsthat are better for all of us". and that's incredibly true and if we thinkof that it means a fundamental shift from the beginning of the process.

we're not using universal design forsome people that have some specialneeds. it should be there from the beginningbecause it produces something better for all of us and again this buildingdid not win the awards for nothing, it's a great testimonial to that. i'd like to take a moment and thenrecap my thinking that i shared so far. we've looked at interactions as livingrelationships and how they happen in a context, and the importance ofthat context to be a universal context. now what universal design ispointing at is those interactions. those are what make the context auseful context and this is where our

responsibility starts infostering these interactions. here are the three most importantthings i'm going to share with youtoday. the first thing about interaction is,you don't design interactions, you design the context for interactions. second most important thing i will sharewith you here today is don't design interactions, you design the context forinteractions and what is the third most important thing iwill share with you today? you don't design interactions, youdesign the context for interactions and that's specifically because the verynature of interaction is spontaneous andcontext dependent.

we can't design it and dictate it andcreate it because that goes against the reason of being in a way. what we need to do is foster theinteractions and we do that by creating the context for interactions to emerge. another way of saying that is you can'treally design how people will use abuilding. our responsibility is to design thebuilding's ability to be used by people. it sounds like i'm saying the samething in two different ways but actually there is a fundamental difference, wecan't design the way people will use it. we design the space's ability to be usedand that's essentially different from thebeginning.

the question is how, how do we do that,how do we create contexts that fosterinteractions? now this question is what drives mythinking, personally my work and this is what led me to myphilosophy of architecting interaction. a few years ago i founded akka likeyou were mentioning and the reason akka was founded in the firstplace was to develop and implement architecting interaction. i couldn't find another environment to doso, so i had to just create it and proceedwith that. the vision is of course developing and itwill be hopefully a lifetime work and the implementation, the how, the realreality, making this vision real, is what

we actually focus on at akka. now what i mean by architectinginteraction, architecting is a term i use to embody the notion of a verb, anaction, on ongoing process which is what i believe architecture is. interaction as i mention is simply theaction happening in between entities. so if you look at architecting interactionit's really exploring interactions betweenpeople. exploring the question of how do wecreate contexts that foster interactions? and we explore that question on a scaleof intervention, a scale ranging from products, to furniture, to interiors,to buildings to urban facilities.

remember, we don't design interaction,we design the context for interaction. through our work at akka we havelearned something that's actually quite useful to us in our work. we have learned that any successfulenvironment, any successful space you look at is actually driven by three mainforms of interactions, and those forms of interactions arecollaboration, creativity and learning. it is at the intersection of these formsof interaction that innovation emerges. it's by people coming together andinteracting mainly with these three forms of interaction that value emerges.

this is where things are created. this is where added value happens. and this is exactly why wehave specialised at akka in actually designing spaces forcollaboration, creativity and learning. now, we could ask, which spacesactually need creativity, collaborationand learning? sir, could you think of a spacethat needs collaboration, creativity orlearning? a school. a street. an office.

one more. sorry, family, that's excellent. my point is, every space needs to fostercreativity, collaboration and learning. starting from private homes all the wayto the public realm and that's because every space needs to foster interactions. they're only different interactionsand only to varying degrees. creating this context for interaction,this is the essence of architectinginteraction. context for interactionsis what architecture is. this is what ourbuilt environment is about.

this is even what our nature socalled non-built environment is about. it's about context for interactions. what i want to mention here and stress,despite our big majority of architects in the room, is that architectureis made for the people using it. they're the ones who own it,not the architects who designed it. and i personally need to remember thatevery day starting with myself because we love our work and we get attached toit but really this is what architecture is. because architecture is nota product that we just put out there. it's actually a service.

and if you think of architecture as aservice then the starting point become the people using it. i'd like to talk a little bit about anothershift of thinking and a shift of approach and that is between form and flow. now, not only has universal designbeen limited in its understanding and consequences in a way, it's been thepredominant concern of only a handfulof architects. today contemporary architecturehas largely become sculptural, at least this is what's portrayed. this is what's celebrated inmagazines and brochures and so on.

most architects look at spaces fromabove, like a product, like a toy, like a bird might look at it with a distance. what they're focusing on is the form. and i think that'smissing on a big chunk of work. that's missing on actually theflow that happens in those spaces. so what i strive to do consciously isactually shift my focus from the form tothe flow. see, i believe it's when startingwith the flow that the form emerges. now, i'd like to give a first exampleabout that, i'm sure you have all come across these beautiful architecturalphotographs, websites, posters,

magazines, et cetera, thesephotographs are showing a beautifullydesigned space. ladies and gentlemen, what'smissing in those photographs? >> people. >> thank you. other audiences have had a hardtime with this one, ironically enough. people, not only is there not a singleperson in these images, there is not even a sign of a person having beenthere ever and that for me is prettydisconcerting. the focus in theseimages is on the space as a form, as a sculpture, as a product.

another example to look at actually hasto do with the public realm and what i love about this is we really can see thatit's not about what we built, it's about the void and it's actually thevoid that creates the value, it's the void that people use. this is where people move, interactwith the space, interact with each other. it's not about whatsomething is, it's about what it does. and those shifts are all very importantin reminding us where the focus is, where the driving force is. a third example.

this one comes from our own work. these are images of a space wefinished designing last year actually in amsterdam and what i like about thesephotographs is that they show the reality of a lived in space, aspace designed to be lived in. and just as i speak of livingrelationships i want to speak about livingspace. now, the way we approach designinga space, i'm saying if we actually shift from the form to theflow, what does that mean? that means we look at the spacethrough the flow of people, through the use of people, densities forexample, where do people gather.

where are the sedentary spaces. where are the most fluctuatingspaces, where do people move around? another aspect i want to look at hereis those interaction nodes, where do people tend to interactmost or the least or not at all? interactions remember is to varyingdegrees which means it's like a dimmer switch, you have less of it, you havemore of it, you have different forms of it. where are these interaction nodeshappening and how does the space fall into place around them? another very important aspect is thedensity of activity in the space and we

like to think about thisas the heartbeat of the space. this is what's happening in the space,this is really what's making it alive. another very important aspect is actuallythe literal flow of people in the spaces, see different people will use the spacein different ways, even the same person will use the space in different waysat different times and it's important to actually look at these flows and studythem, before we understand what the form needs to bethat emerges around them. shifting from the form to the flow reallymeans that it's from the flow that theform emerges. and that's a processwe just need to trust.

let's take a step awayfrom architecture for a second. i want to look at einstein'sformula, e equals mc squared. now, you might be familiar withthis formula already, e is the energy. m the mass and c, the speed of light,what we did is we took that formula and translated into architecture becausethat's what architects do, we just relate it to ourselves all the time again. so that's what we did with this formulaas well and what we found out is we can simply associate the mass to the builtmass, the bricks and mortar, the walls, the floors, theceilings, the physical space.

if we look at the speed of light, thisbecomes the velocity, the movement of people in space, their interactions. now, when we look at it that way whathappens is the energy becomes the emerging quality of the space. there is a fundamental differencebetween focusing on delivering the built mass as a static form and actuallyfocusing on how to foster interactions, how to foster flows to deliverthe emerging quality of a space. and this is relevant beyond architectureinto any field, any service or product or task you are engaged in, there isa fundamental difference between

focusing on that as a static product,this what i'm delivering and that's it, or looking at that and looking what is thequality that that can offer beyond itself? and that's the whole shift again. this is again an illustration of shiftingfrom the form to the flow which means the driving force isthe flow, the form follows. and what that means then is we startlooking at spaces not as quantitative spaces but as qualitative spacesand this is where quality emerges, this is where this emerging qualitywe're talking about just comes about. this is the type of spacesthat you will walk into and say,

there is something about this space,i don't know what it is but it just feels right, it feels natural. i mentioned before how ibelieve architecture is a service. i'll take a moment to illustrate that. traditionally architectsdesign and build buildings. they start at the beginning of designand until the end of construction right when the buildingis ready to be inhabited. the minute people move into thespace the architects have gone and they are never to be seen again,on the site of the crime basically.

exception to this building sir! now, i've always been veryuncomfortable with that process because i've always felt that it's whenpeople move into the space that the building's life in fact begins and it'sexactly then that i, as an architect want to be the most involved. now, this is like being pregnant for ninemonths, excuse the inspiration of my metaphors, and then not havingthe baby which is very unnatural. architecture is ibelieve going into architecting. see if you think of this from theperspective of interactions, architectureis static.

it's architecting that's the living,this is the living phase of the project. this is when it all comes together. architecture needs to extend intoarchitecting and this is again to recall architecture is a process, it's a service. it's not something we just do, putout there and move on to the next one. it's important to see howpeople are actually using it. how is it changing people's lives? i love the comment you made in theintroduction about the lady using this building, this is really what this is about.

the question is how? i've asked this question beforebut i didn't really answer it, i will now. the question is how do we designcontext and foster interactions and to bring that a little bit more down toearth i would like to offer just three quite provocative design guidelines, and todo that i want to go back to the campus story, the architect's story. now, the first design guideline i wantto highlight from the story is that of designing incomplete. if you remember the story, the architectdidn't finish and seal the design,

she didn't complete the design and sayokay, this is where the paths are going to go and i'm done. she actually left the campus unfinished,incomplete and that was exactly the invitation to the staff and studentsto participate, to give their input. designing incomplete invites interaction. now i want to look at the consequencesof what does it mean to designincomplete? and when you think about it it means ashift of role, especially of the designer'srole. a shift from beingdictators to being facilitators, and that's a tremendous shift of role.

second provocative design guidelinefrom the story is that of designingimpermanent. let's look at the story again. the site wasn't covered with asphalt. the architecture was grasswhich is intrinsically flexible, designing impermanent allowsthis flexibility to happen. it allows entities to changeand to grow and to develop. designingimpermanent invites interaction. what designing impermanent means, itmeans we have to shift from our 2d and 3d thinking, into 4d thinking.

a book mr. fuller, that many of youmay be familiar with, was one of the forefathers of 4d thinking with whathe called the 4d house, it's brilliant, you have to look it upif you're not familiar with it. it's one of myfavourite architects in a sense. now, the reason for the thinking isimportant in this context here today is specifically because it's a very importantcomponent of universal design. even the sameperson changes over time. we will have different needs at differenttimes over time which is why 4d thinking is essential in universal design.

are you ready for the thirdprovocative design guideline? not quite. the third designguideline is to design imperfect. not only were the paths in unusuallocations, that the architect couldn't actually have predicted herself,none of them were straight. designing imperfectrelates to aesthetics. it relates to human aesthetics and thisis where you have to imagine the sharp cold modern, so-called perfectaesthetics of modern architecture and compare that with handmadejapanese pots, for example.

designing imperfect allows us tocelebrate texture, smells and history and the humanity of even inanimate things. designing imperfect invites interactionand the consequence of that is verysimple. we just have tomake things more human. think more human, designmore human, produce more human. ladies and gentlemen designingincomplete, impermanent and imperfect is how we createcontexts that foster interactions. this is the answerto our driving question. because incomplete, impermanent andimperfect spaces are human spaces,

they're spaces that are tolerant,that adapt, that grow with us, and this is where it all starts. we are at this conference aboutuniversal design and i have been asked to share my thinking here with you fromthe perspective of universal design and i'm happy and honoured to do soespecially because this is something that's very natural for me to do. we may speak different languagesand use different words but really we're talking about the same thing, and againall i hope do here today is share with you some of my personal perspectivesand hopefully we'll have some questions

and answers where i canhear your thoughts and ideas. what i've personally learned aboutinteraction design and universal design, is this, universal design is designingcontext for all people to interact. it's not just designing context for people. it's designing context for peopleto interact and that's the key thing, that's the key message andpeople interact with each other. they interact with the space. they interact withobjects in the space. they interact through thespace, et cetera, et cetera.

and you don't design interaction, youdesign the context for interactions and what were the guidelines to do that? incomplete, imperfect and impermanent. architecting interaction is a vision. it started as an idea, a philosophy,it's a driving force behind our work. to make it reality we hadto actually develop a process. we had to sit down and sayhow are we really doing to do this? so what we did at akkais we developed this process. and the essential thing to rememberabout this process is that it's a

collaborative process based oncommunity consultations and i'll explain what that means in a minute. and the other point of it is, it's reallybased on the communal creation ofknowledge. no-one has the answer of what thespace is going to be before the space is there and even then it's questionable,which means we have to actually create the knowledge of what the space is, wehave to actually create those questions together and together and we meansthe architects, the engineers, the other professionals and the users. the goal and the means ofthis process are one and the same

and that's of course on purpose. so this process has been designedto allow us to create spaces that foster interactions and collaboration. the way we do that, the way we getfrom the beginning to the end of the process is throughinteractions and collaboration. and they relate to collaboration. now, this process as youcan see, is four phased process, three of which happened before thedelivery of the space, before the space is born and the last phasehappens after people have moved in.

our first phase is called appreciate andin that phase we simply aim at gathering a shared understanding of the projectthrough community consultationsessions. now, when i say community i meanthe different people concerned by theproject. and if you were to take the example ofa school for example, you would think of the students, the teachers, the staff, theparents, the neighbours, the bus drivers et cetera, et cetera. you have to think of it as a series ofconcentric circles and each one of them would be a group of people andthe whole idea of the consultation that happens in that phase, is a deliberateprocess of involving these people in the

project that is theirs. once we're done with phase one andwe have a shared understanding of the project we move into phase two. before we move into phase two it'simportant to remember that users are the experts in the using the space andthat's why phase one is fundamental, phase one has no design as so-called,there is no so-called architecture in it. it's really just understanding thedifferent perspectives of the different people, specifically because in usingthe space the user are the experts, i mean it just makes sense.

then we go into phase two which wecalled the kernel and the kernel is the seed of something, it's where everythinggrows from and the important thing to remember about the kernel is that itturns the shared understanding into a shared vision; this is where we startseeing what the project is going to look like, feel like, be like, envisage. at the end of that phase is where wego into the kick start phase and this is where design, developmentand implementation happens. the key about this phase is actuallyto keep design development and reality very close together.

so we go throughwhat we call learning by doing. we take an action in reality, we learnfrom it, let it inform our next action and this is how the design actually develops,based on reality and real feedback andreal input. now at the end of that phase is wherenormally and traditionally the building is done, it's handed over and the architectsleave and this is where we have developed a phase four that we calladapt and this phase can only start when people havemoved into the building. now, the key in this phase is it's byobserving how people use the space that we can bring in the final finetuning and refinements to the space.

this is where we ensure that thespace and the community actually fit. somehow the space is reallyserving the community that's living in it. this is the process that we use. appreciate to find thekernel, kick start for adaptation. now, of course what you can realise isthat the adapt phase creates a renewed understanding, a renewed appreciationof the project, which is why our process is in fact not a linearone but a circular one. there are three qualities iwant to highlight about this process. the first one has todo with the process itself.

you see the processis based on people's input. it's designed as an open process. it will not advance if we don't havepeople's input and participation in it. it's designed as an incomplete process. the second aspect i want to emphasiseabout this process is the fact that it actually grows and develops andchanges along those inputs given by the people, by the users, along alsoour own experts, so-called architects, understanding that's evolving as we go,because we're learning from the users and their input and this continuouschange of the process is what makes itimpermanent.

now, when i talk about people actuallyparticipating in the process and this process being very collaborative,we're talking about getting insights from people and the key here is insightsand not opinions, you see opinions and insights are fundamentally different,an opinion is really a subjective, i like it, i don't like this, i think this, ithink that and that's generally not veryhelpful. what this process is looking at is reallygetting insights, which are supposed to be a bit more objectiveand based on the experience. so the different groups of thecommunity, the different profiles of people involved by the project will all tellyou something different and what we're

looking for is how they experiencethe space because it's through their experience that we can actually learn. and the fact that this processfeeds on insights, people's insights, is exactly what makesit human and imperfect. remember we don't design interactions,we design the context for interactions and it's important thatthis context is a universal context. what i like to do herefor a second is quickly recap. architecting interaction is aboutcreating context for people to interact. and that's because every area of ourworld needs to foster interactions only tovarying degrees.

now the key things to remember is toshift our attention from the form to the flow and let the formemerge from the flow. architecture is a service and that's afundamental understanding we need tohave. and if we remember the formula eequals mc square, it's really about shifting from the staticmass to delivering the energy. the question is how do wedeliver the energy of the space? another thing to keep in mind is, wedon't design interaction we design the context for interactions,i cannot repeat that one enough. now when you ask how do we do this?

how do we createspaces that foster interactions? it's really by designing incomplete,imperfect and impermanent spaces through a process that is in itselfincomplete, impermanent and imperfect. this is what the essence of architectinginteraction is and this is what i believe the essence of universal design is. so the last things i would like to sharewith you here is architecture is really designing for people and people ofdifferent sizes and different shapes with different needs at different times. this is what universal design is.

and i like to think of universal designas a call and call to action and a call that does not limit us but rather liberates usbecause universal design is designing context for all people to interact becauseafter all, all our actions are interactions. thank you very much. subtitles by premier captioning &realtime ltd. www.pcr.ie

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